Total Quality Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Total Quality Management - Essay Example This paper will show some of the main key points as derived from some of the chapters. Total Quality Management (TQM) is an extensive and organized methodology to authoritative administration that looks to enhance the nature of items and administrations through continuous refinements because of consistent reaction. Quality as an absolute means that in everything that we do we must put quality in it o achieve maximum results. When Dr. Edward came up with the concept it was in the aim of improving educational standards. According to Salis (2002), the word quality has lots of conflicting and unclear meanings. This has been occasioned because the word quality can be used as both an absolute and as a relative concept. In conversations quality is used as an absolute and is referred to as part of nature. Absolute quality can not be compromised or traded for something else. Quality is a concept with class and it’s not available to every one but everyone wants it. In technical scene, quality is largely a relative concept. In this sense its definition changes to an attribute of a product or a service. We often say the quality of an easy varies from good to excellent. There is a philosophy that a quality product depicts the ideology of equality, in the sense that you get what you pay for. In education is hard to say who will determine the quality of education. This brings in the role of the consumer in quality. The consumer of the product can answer the question of quality. Education wise, the consumer will gauge the quality of education by the exams that they partake and pass. It is up to the consumer and collage to come up with management policies that will ensure quality in the products they are supplying in the class. Applying the TQM in the collage can improve the quality of education in a great way. SWOT analysis is an integral routine toll for calculated development in education and still is the number one means of

Consumer Behaviour Case Study on Hellman's Essay

Consumer Behaviour Case Study on Hellman's - Essay Example In the highly competitive environment of global business, it becomes hugely important for businesses to study the various factors that influence consumer buying decisions. Kotler and Armstrong (2009) state that marketing broadly meets the needs and requirements of the people. The marketing therefore, provides the necessary linkages to facilitate the awareness, needs and access to the products by the consumers. In the current times, the globalization and technology have contributed to a paradigm shift in the consumer behaviour. The consumer has not only become more informed but is also provided with plethora of choices. Thus, consumer psychology has emerged as one of the most pertinent issues within strategic marketing that impacts purchase behaviour and influences business outcome (Foxall et al., 2005).The paper would be discussing the marketing stimuli used by Hellmann’s to influence consumer’s cognitive, affective and behavioural responses.The paper would also highlig ht Hellmann’s market strategy to influence consumers purchase psychology. Hellmann’s has made a niche market position in the area of food and food ancillary products. Mayonnaise with huge range is its key product along with salad dressing, ketchup, salad cream etc. The last hundred years have seen Hellmann’s evolve as iconic brand with food ingredients that constantly redefine cooking.Indeed, the marketing strategies of Hellmann’s rely fundamentally on the belief that food can be creatively cooked to tempt the palate of the connoisseurs. It use of various consumer psychology marketing stimuli, like bold design, jingles and short, crisp messages, become highly effective elements to connect with its consumers. The theoretical underpinning of marketing tools helps explain the success of its advertisements which are designed to address the needs and requirements of food lovers and housewives. 2. Marketing mix and consumer response Marketing mix strategy uses different platforms of communication and media to influence customers’ perception and subsequently their buying decisions. Internet, television, radio, print media, hoarding etc. are major marketing tools that are exploited to gain market leverage. The 4Ps: product, price, place and promotion are important parts of market mix which determine the level of commitment of the customers and influence their behaviour. Indeed, customer’s purchase decision is motivated by multiple factors and delivers satisfaction from myriad front to earn customer’s long term loyalty. The inter-dependency of resources within the defined system is critical imperative which has huge potential to create not only a sustainable market but also one which is mutually satisfying. Thus, factors that impact consumer behaviour have increasingly become vital inputs for marketers to identify, address and exploit in order to gain competitive advantage in the industry (Solomon et al., 2006). Most imp ortantly, success of the product relies heavily on the impact that it makes

John Locke on Tacit and Unintended Consent Essay Example for Free

John Locke on Tacit and Unintended Consent Essay In his Second Treatise on Law and Government, John Locke outlines clear and coherent standards for what constitutes a legitimate government and what persons one such government would have authority over. Both are determined by citizens acts of consenting to relinquish to the government part of their natural authority over their own conduct. Unfortunately, the situation becomes much less clear once we consider how his standards would apply to the political situation existing in the real world today. If we continue to subscribe to Lockes account without altering its standards, we would see a precipitous drop in the number of people whose interests existing governments are responsible for serving. In this paper I will show that with certain changes and clarifications to Lockes standards, the responsibilities of existing governments need not be allowed to shrink so drastically. This creates a tradeoff, however. Changing the standards to apply more closely to actual functioning governments has the consequence of making it more difficult to determine the legitimacy of those governments. Some of the clarity of Lockes theoretical model is lost in translating it to apply to actual instances of government. A cornerstone of Lockes political philosophy is the idea that a government holds power legitimately only through the consent of the governed. A civil society consents to grant a particular government rule over it, and each person chooses on an individual basis to become a member of a particular civil society (II, 117). As giving such consent has far-reaching consequences over a persons life, Locke provides further explanation of what consent entails in this context. Only one way exists to become a member of a civil society: express consent. From Lockes account this would have to be a fairly formal business, which the individual enters by positive Engagement, and express Promise and Compact (II, 122). Lockes original wording is important because it seems to imply that unless a person actually makes a public agreement to submit to government law in return for protection of person, liberty, and property, she has not expressly consented. He makes it clear that there are no alternatives to this official process if one is to become part of a civil society, (II, 122). Even if one is not considered part of a particular civil society, she must submit to its authority to the extent of her involvement in that society. Someone who owns land within the territory occupied by a civil society is obligated to obey the law of whatever body has ruling authority in that territory as it applies to ownership and use of property. Someone merely travelling on a public road through a country will have less contact with the civil society of that area and so fewer laws of that society will have application to her behavior. Still, those laws that do cover what activities she carries out have binding force on her (II, 120-121). These people incur the obligation to submit to local authority because that authority is protecting them, perhaps by preventing the citizens of the area from acting in ways that would harm other people including the outsider. For the outsider to be free of those restraints and take advantage of the areas citizens would be unjust; therefore she is obligated to comply with the legal restraints observed by citizens the area. In neither of these cases would the person in question be considered a member of the civil society whose laws she is obeying unless she expressly consented to join that society in addition to her tacit consent to follow its laws. An immediate criticism of Lockes account thus far is that in practice, hardly anyone expressly gives consent to join any civil society. Even in most real-world cases where a person does announce submission to a particular government, the declaration would not meet Lockes conditions of consent that would give legitimacy to the rule of government over that person. Oaths such as the U. S. Pledge of Allegiance are usually only indications that the speaker is prepared to obey directives from the government of a particular state. Consent in the strict sense would have to make explicit what the person is consenting to. Someone joining a civil society under Lockes conception would need to spell out that she is giving up the right to make and enforce her own judgments to the government of that society, in return for that governments protection of her interests. Even promises of blind obedience are far from universally practiced, and in most countries are the practice of reciting such pledges is confined to schools and youth groups as a form of education rather than contractual agreement. (The idea that most civil societies do not consider young people mature enough to consent to become members is discussed later in this paper). Explicit contractual consent is far rarer than these questionably binding declarations. If most people fail to give explicit consent to trade away some of their natural rights, under Lockes terms they have not joined any civil society, and so should not be counted as the citizens of any state or the subjects of any government. This has profound significance because of the relation between civil society and government. The agreement of a civil society is the force and justification behind its governments authority (II, 149); in return for the mandate that grants it power, the government exists to protect the interests of that particular group of people. Anyone not the member of a particular civil society has no legitimate voice in the form or operation of the government that society creates, and she has no right to expect that government to protect her interests. This does not mean that the government will not take any actions that are to her benefit; the laws of that nation which prevent its citizens from killing and robbing may also prevent them from killing or robbing her. When the government enacts laws, however, it need only do so with the interests of its constituency in mind, and has no obligation to create laws conducive to the interests of an outsider. Any benefits the outsider enjoys as a result of the laws of a particular country are purely coincidental to those laws intent. Someone who is not a member of any civil society at all will accordingly have no power over any government, and her interests will deserve the consideration of no government. Since the vast majority of people have not given express consent to join a particular society, the majority of humanity has no right to expect its interests to be served or protected by any of the governments existing on earth. Everyone, however, is required to submit to the control of one government or another depending of where they live, since basically every part of the earth inhabited by humans is under the dominion of one state or another. Rule is solely in the hands of those few people who have actually signed some kind of formal social contract, and needs only to consider their interests. Any government with which no living person has made a formal consent agreement rules illegitimately. The fact that Lockes model leads to an implication that most of humanity is neither the legitimate authors nor the deserving beneficiaries of government does not prove the model is logically flawed. However, the very great majority of people consider themselves members of a civil society, and are considered as such by other people and, most importantly, by governments. However real governments define their constituency, few if any set express consent as the standard. Enslavement of the tacitly consenting masses by the expressly contracted few thus fails to provide an accurate theoretical model of governmental institutions in the real world. Locke himself describes of the formation of government as an action taken by and for the community (II, 149); this wording suggests that he would have disagreed with the idea that citizenship by express consent leading to dictatorship by a de facto minority is, in practice, the most typical form of legitimate government. It is possible that those without citizenship (the majority of people under our present definition) actually benefit by not being contractually bound to any particular civil society. As long as someone who is not an official citizen resides within the territory of an existing government which fulfills the duties expected of government (II, 131), its laws discourage both citizens of the civil society and other outsiders from threatening her life, liberty, and property. Thus someone could enjoy much of the security that membership in a civil society would provide simply by living in a well-governed area without joining in civil society. In PHI 309 lecture, Prof. Sreenivasan pointed out a possible advantage that such a living arrangement could provide for the unaffiliated: in cases where it was in ones best interests to abandon a country beset by war, pestilence, or economic or other disaster, noncitizens could jump ship without that act being considered an injustice. Those who had by express consent tied themselves to the civil society might well be obligated to remain with the community, and would not have the option of fleeing the war or hardship. Yet in most of the world, nomadic living is considered the exception, not the rule. Citizens of the worlds various nations must be considering factors not included in Lockes account. One of the most significant of these is a convention that has introduced a new kind of consent enabling people to become citizens of particular states. Most civil societies have found it desirable to designate officially who is a member of that society, i. e. a member of that state. As a governments power depends on its constituency, government function is expedited by the governments having accurate knowledge of the extent of its power base, that is to say the extent of its citizenry. At the same time, concern for its own integrity and distrust of outsiders drives a civil society to delineate who is and is not a member. These and perhaps other factors have led to the creation of conventions (usually expressed as laws passed by governments) by which a person is declared to be a member of a particular civil society (i. e. citizen of a country) regardless of whether or not that person has actually expressed consent to what such membership entails. The most typical example is a law declaring that anyone born in the territory of a particular nation is a citizen of that nation. When still a juvenile, that person of course has not actively consented to anything, and so is usually considered not complete member of civil society; although part of a community, the juvenile generally lacks certain rights and powers given to full members of the society. Upon reaching the age when she can make her own decisions, laws indicate what society the person is considered a member of in the absence of active consent by that person. The person continues to hold that default membership until she makes an active decision to join another civil society. The conventional reflection of this active decision is generally a naturalization process by which someone can become a citizen of a country she did not belong to by default. By going through the naturalization process, a person is understood to consent to the tradeoff which would make her a member of that civil society. It could be objected that being considered the member of a civil society by default is another matter entirely from consenting to join that society and willingly relinquish ones rights. Where is the consent in this instance? This question is less troubling before the person has come of age, because most would agree that a juvenile generally lacks the judgment to be signing any kind of binding social contract. But can a government legitimately assert that a person has consented to cede her rights to it simply because she has not actively protested? This question could be answered affirmatively. A person can choose not to consent to membership in her default civil society, or give up her membership in a civil society she already belongs to, by joining another civil society through a more active process such as naturalization. This means that if she does not take such an action, she is accepting the convention that interprets her inaction as an expression of consent to join the civil society she was assigned to by default. By systematizing and codifying standards for consent, then, states in actual practice ensure that the great majority of people are not lone agents. One might still question how conscious most people are that they are held to be making this sort of contract, even in the most open societies. A case can be made that essentially, they are aware. No one is unaware of what society she belongs to. Each person is effectively the member of whatever civil society exerts control over her, usually through its government. As soon as that person is conscious of the control being exerted over her, she is made unmistakably aware of what her citizenship is. With the realization of what government she is under comes the option to change her membership. The final and most damaging criticism of the consent model is the question of what happens when a person does not have the option to move to a new territory and join a new civil society. This may occur because of a persons own lack of means to carry out or simple ignorance of the options ostensibly available to her. It may also be the result of oppression by the government, preventing citizens of the country from leaving. Any of these conditions can force a person to remain an official member of a particular civil society. However, the standard of conventionalized explicit consent introduced above is only able to maintain that most people consent to join a civil society because it assumes those people have options besides their initial citizenship. If people are not being given other options, the model is still not logically flawed. Rather, it suggests a situation similar to that originally introduced as the consequence of applying Lockes model to the real world: the people in such situations are not really part of the civil society that created the government to whose control they are forced to submit. As such, they retain undiminished the right to join another civil society through a new social contract. If they do so, they may create a new government to follow instead of the one they currently submit to by tacit consent. Of course, there is no guarantee that the government ruling them in the status quo will allow them to replace its control. If it retains control over them by force, Lockes model would still hold them to be tacitly consenting to its authority by enjoyment of its dominion. This counterintuitive conclusion is avoided by the model requiring choice for real consent. If we follow that paradigm, we come to the conclusion that the government is ruling without any consent from the governed in those cases. According to Locke, such government is mere enslavement and so is illegitimate. To say that a government is wholly illegitimate if it hold power over even one person without her consent is clearly excessive; probably no government could ever achieve legitimacy under that criterion. However, we can say that a government is legitimate to the extent that its citizens are aware of other options and consider membership in their current civil society with its ruling government preferable to those options. The problem with such a standard is that it depends on what is thought by the citizens of a country, and to ascertain a persons mentality is difficult. The most reliable test is to provide citizens with realistic options and observe whether they remain with the status quo or seek a change in their situation. That change may involve leaving their current civil society, or it may mean seeking to change the structure or behavior of that societys government. The countrys citizens can be said to consent to the government ruling them to the extent that they posses the power to change their situation, but still maintain the status quo. Thus, the legitimacy of a government can be measured by the effective options available to its citizens. If we had held to Lockes standards for consent to membership in a civil society and submission to government rule, we would have concluded that most people in the world are tacitly consenting to the rule of governments created by very small groups of explicit signers of social contracts. This would lead to a bizarre picture of the political landscape very much at odds with intuition and with modern reality. By changing standards for consent to mean compliance with official requirements for citizenship when other options are available, we are able to account for those who consider themselves and are considered members of a civil society without having given explicit consent, while at the same time freeing those not given a choice from the appearance of having given consent. A government is then legitimate to the extent that its citizens have given consent according to these standards. It is one of those rare examples where laws have made the situation clearer. Sources: Locke, John. Second Treatise. From Two Treatises of Government, Laslett, Peter, ed. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.

Subject Of Language And Identity

Subject Of Language And Identity I have chosen this subject of language and identity, which leads to the death of a language, if language dies. Language and identity comes under my course, part 1, under language and cultural context. On the 4th of February 2010, while browsing through BBCs website I stumbled upon a captivating and according to me a very sad article. It read last speaker of ancient language of Bo dies in India, Boa sr.s story saddened me, she died at the age of 85 and for almost thirty years she didnt have anyone to converse with in her native language. Imagine not being able to use English for thirty years, you loose the freedom to express in your first language. As a journalist I knew what it meant for the world to loose a language, its disheartening, in essence a piece of history and culture is lost, I believe it is as important to preserve and save a language as it is to save and preserve the environment, but everyone is not aware of the adverse affects language death can cause. As a journalist, I thought of it as my moral responsibility to throw light on language death and its adverse effects. Thus, I wrote this article and decided on publishing it in a newspaper as it would reach a larger group of people and educate them on why they should preserve their native language. Language death Approximately 7000 languages exist in todays world and this number is rapidly dwindling, is it a cause for concern? As globalization spreads around the world, it is natural that smaller communities would like to move out of their isolation and seek interaction with the rest of the world. The number of languages dying is sorrowful. People naturally tend to shift their language use due to globalization and they leave behind their native language if it is not spoken by a lot of people. Asking them to hold onto a language they do not want anymore and preserve it, just for the sake of linguists and not the community itself, it is a bit too much to ask for, isnt it?But theres actually more to it than what meets the eye. Why fight this? A national geographic study states that every 14 days a language dies. By 2100 more than half of the languages spoken on this earth may disappear, taking away with them a wealth of knowledge on world history, culture and natural environment. Language is the road map of a culture. It tells you where its people come from and where they are going. Rita Mae Brown This quote by the American writer Rita Mae Brown gives us an insight into why preserving a language is of importance. A language defines a culture, through the people who speak it. Every language has words that describe a particular cultural practice or idea, when translated into another language, the precise meaning might not come across. What we essentially lose is cultural heritage. The way of expressing the relationship with nature, with the world, it is also the way in which people express humor, their love, their life; most importantly communicating effectively with family is lost. Languages are living, breathing organisms holding connections that define a culture. When a language dies a culture is lost. Because of the close links language and identity share, if an individual or group thinks of their language as useless, they think of their identity as the same. This could have adverse effects; it could lead to depression, drug abuse and social disruption. And as parents no longer pass on their language to their children the connection between grandparents and children is lost which leads to traditional values not being handed on and theres a vacuum that remains where people for generations realize they have lost something. Many languages are in danger of extinction thathave rich oral cultures with stories, songs, and histories passed on from generation to generation, but with no particular written form. Much of what us humans know about nature is encoded in oral languages. For thousands of years now native groups have interacted closely with the natural world and have insightful understanding on local lands, plants, animals, and ecosystems. Many still are not documented by science itself. Therefore studying indigenous languages proves to be beneficial while learning about the environment and conservation. Sanskrit is one such ancient language that is loosing its prominence and its speakers decreasing everyday. It was said to be the mother of all languages. Sanskrit is not practically used and maybe that is one of reasons of its decline but I believe it should be conserved because of the traditional values it possesses and because of its richness in culture. Take for instance Arthashastra, it is an Indian treatise written in Sanskrit which deals with statecraft, economic policy and military strategy it was written all the way back in 4th century BC. These concepts are not new and modern, they have been around for a long time now, if we do not conserve Sanskrit we will loose all of this valuable knowledge and also lose a piece of history. All is not lost for those who want the smaller languages to survive. Another such language dying out is Palenquero. Palenquero is thought to the one and only Spanish-based Creole language in Latin America. Fewer than half of the community speaks it. It is spoken in the village of San Basilio De Palenque. Many children and young adults understand the language and pronounce a few phrases, which is a great sign as the village of San Basilio De Palenque is trying to preserve its language and spread it, the villages resilience is commendable. And other communities whose languages are close to extinction should look at them as an example. Why do languages die out though? Throughout history, the languages of powerful groups and imperial countries have spread while the languages of the smaller cultures and groups have become extinct. This happens due to official language policies and also the allure of speaking a highly prestigious global language such as English. These trends explain why a small country like Bolivia would have more of language diversity rather than a big country like the USA. As big languages spread, children whose parents speak a comparatively smaller language tend to grow up learning the more dominant language. Those children may never learn the smaller language, or they may just forget it as it falls out of use. These trends have occurred throughout history, but what is alarming and worrying is the rate at which languages are disappearing, it has significantly accelerated over the recent years. Associations and initiatives such as Enduring voices, Living tongue, and the endangered languages project by Google are trying to preserve language and that is a sign of hope. The organizations that are involved and that have come up with these ideas are national geographic and Google. The death of a language is an indication of a human crisis: the loss of a store of wisdom, the sense of a community being thrown away. As we try to stop global warming and save the environment, we should also try and save our languages, as they are an integral part of our heritage.

Analysis Of 1984 :: essays research papers

Analysis of 1984 In 1949, an Englishman named Eric Blair published the novel 1984. Under the pseudonym, George Orwell, this author became one of the most respected and notable political writers for his time. 1984 was Orwell’s prophetic vision of the world to come. This creation of â€Å"Negative Utopia† was thoroughly convincing through Orwell’s use of setting and characterization. The theme conveyed by Orwell is that no matter how strong an individual a communist society would destroy any hope that that soul had of surviving, and that no matter the reasons told to the society, that power that the Party seeks is for no gain except for power. The story begins in April of 1984, in a grim, industrialized city called London. London was â€Å"chief city of Airstrip One, itself the third most populous of the provinces of Oceania." The dwellings that the people live in, called Victory Mansions, are depicted as â€Å"†¦rotting nineteenth-century houses, their sides shored up with balks of timber, their windows patched with cardboard and their roofs with corrugated iron†¦.† The setting creates a mood of devastation and hopelessness, fabricated by the Inner Party to suppress its followers. These people live in a society that is ruled by totalitarianism, and the aim is to give the greatest good to the smaller number. As indicated by â€Å"Cliffs Notes,† on pages 34 and 35, the main character, â€Å"Winston, like others, is expected to do his job efficiently and receive no reward but the opportunity to live austerely for the greater good and self-perpetuation of the Inner Party.† Told in third person limited, the reader is only allowed in-depth knowledge of the protagonist, Winston. Winston Smith, a thirty-nine year old man with a varicose ulcer, is a member of the Outer Party. He has â€Å"a smallish, frail figure, the meagerness of his body merely emphasized by the blue overalls which were the uniform of the Party. His hair was very fair, his face naturally sanguine, his skin roughened by course soap and blunt razor blades and the cold of the winter that had just ended.† Winston works in the Ministry of Truth, which is concerned with news, entertainment, education, and the fine arts. He is employed in the Records Department, where his tasks consist of writing and rewriting scripts to fit the present and past which unceasingly fluctuate and add to the dominion the Party had over its members, and the history they believe in.

The Church and Gay, Lesbian and Bisexual Issues :: Argumentative Persuasive Essay Examples

Free Essays - The Church and Gays, Lesbians The Catholic Church loves LGBT people with a profound love, just like it loves all of its other children. Various organizations within the church have as their main purpose the delivery of the Gospel to LGBT's. All of us are sacred creations of God, and therefore deserve respect on the basis of our human nature. This essay treats an outreach effort of the church in this area. In the rite of baptism, the liturgy joyfully proclaims, "you are God's work of art, created in Christ Jesus." Today, lesbian and gay Catholics are reminding the Church that they, too, have been baptized. Many are beginning to reclaim their membership in the body of Christ and the Church. As baptized persons, lesbian and gay Catholics share the rights of all the baptized: "to receive the sacraments, to be nourished with the Word of God and to be sustained by the other spiritual helps of the Church" (Catechism) Increasing numbers of lesbian and gay people are taking another look at the Catholic Church, which they thought had previously rejected them totally and definitively. Many are discovering in the Church a new spirit of understanding: "[I]t seems appropriate to understand sexual orientation (heterosexual or homosexual) as a deep-seated dimension of one's personality and to recognize its relative stability in a person. Generally, homosexual orientation is experienced as a given, not as something freely chosen. By itself, therefore, a homosexual orientation cannot be considered sinful, for morality presumes the freedom to choose. The teachings of the Church make it clear that the fundamental human rights of homosexual persons must be defended and that all of us must strive to eliminate any forms of injustice, oppression, or violence against them"(Pastoral). "It is not sufficient only to avoid unjust discrimination. Homosexual persons 'must be accepted with respect, compassion and sensitivity'"(Catechism par.2358, Always 6,9) The U.S. bishops expressed their welcome of lesbian and gay people in 1976, and repeated it in 1991: "Homosexual [persons], like everyone else, should not suffer from prejudice against their basic human rights. They have a right to respect, friendship, and justice. They should have an active role in the Christian community.(To Live) Today, many dioceses and parishes are inviting lesbian and gay Catholics to assume active roles in the Christian community. Ministries of outreach and pastoral services welcome lesbian and gay Catholics to share their gifts with the entire Church.

What I Have Learned in Introduction to Psychology

In Introduction to Psychology we touched briefly on a lot of the components of psychology. It is an introduction class, so it does not go deeply into any one category, instead just skims most of them. I learned what qualifies psychology as a science, the brain and how it is important in the science of psychology. I learned about sensation and perception and then did a project on how psychoactive drugs alter them. We talked in depth about learning, classical conditioning specifically, and covered operant conditioning quite thoroughly as well. Freud was discussed quite often, since he is seen as the founder of psychology. The psychodynamic theories on development, personality, and psychological disorders as well as other theories are some of the subjects I will be going into depth in this paper. What is Psychology? The textbook describes psychology as â€Å"the scientific study of behavior and mental processes (Ciccarelli & White, p. 4, 2009)†. In class, the definition of psychology we used is â€Å"the scientific study of behavior and mental processes and how they are affected by an organism’s physical state, mental state, and external state (K.  Hoecker, class lecture, 2010)†. The four goals of psychology are to describe, understand, predict, and modify why behavior is happening (Ciccarelli & White, p. 5, 2009). Psychology is a social science, focused on the individual, which is related to sociology, anthropology, political science, and economics (K. Hoecker, class lecture, 2010). What Are the Models of Psychiatry? There are seven models of psychiatry mentioned in the textbook: psychodynamic, behavioral, humanistic, cognitive, sociocultural, biopsychological, and evolutionary (Ciccarelli & White, p. 13-16, 2009). In class we also discussed the feminist perspective (K. Hoecker, class lecture, 2009). The original psychoanalytical theory was based on Freud and he believed that sex and sexual motivations were behind a person’s behavior. Modern psychodynamic theory focuses on childhood experiences and unconscious thoughts in relationship to a person’s behavior (Ciccarelli & White, p. 13, 2009). The behavioral perspective is the idea that people’s actions and behaviors are based on what they have learned. Watson and Skinner were both important people in the behaviorist field (Ciccarelli & White, p. 14, 2009). Humanistic approach to psychology is a newer approach than the other two and the most famous founders of the approach are Carl Rogers, and Abraham Maslow. The humanistic approach emphasizes free will and human potential to change. Gestalt started the cognitive perspective on psychology with his studies of thought. â€Å"Cognitive perspective with its focus on memory, intelligence, perception, thought processes, problem solving, language and learning has become a major force in psychology (Ciccarelli & White, p. 15, 2009)†. Sociocultural psychology tries to explain the context of behavior and how it is influenced by society (Ciccarelli & White, p. 5, 2009). The idea that behavior is caused by genetics, hormones, and body chemistry is biopsychiatry. Biopsychiatry is becoming an extremely important field, because of the possibility now to find mental illnesses with brain scans. (Ciccarelli & White, p. 16, 2009). Darwin is the most famous evolutionary psychiatrist. Evolutionary psychiatry is the study of the evolutionary basis of human behavior (Ciccarelli & White, p. 16, 2009). The last psychiatric theory is not mentioned in the text book but it is the feminist theory. The feminist theory explores gender roles, and gender bias (K.  Hoecker, class lecture, 2010). It is important to know about the different perspectives on psychiatry because they have different beliefs and treatment models. If a person is planning on going into the psychiatric field they would need to know the different types of psychiatry and which one meets their personality and belief system. What Does the Brain Have to do With Psychiatry? The brain is where thought processes happen and has always held mystery. Scientists are discovering new things all the time. We now know that 10% of the brain is made up of neurons, and the remaining 90% is made up of glial cells. Glial cells hold things in place, insulate the paths for electrical currents, provide the neurons with nutrients and clean up the dead neurons (K. Hoecker, class lecture, 2010). Neurons are made up of different parts. The soma is the body of the cell; dendrites branch off the soma and receive messages. Axons are tubes that transmit messages to other cells; the axon is covered by myelin to help insulate the axon and speed up the messages. The synaptic knobs, also known as the axon terminals, store the neurotransmitters that carry the messages (Ciccarelli & White, p. 49, 50, 2009). The left side of the brain deals with the right half of the body, language, math, logic, analysis and reading. The right hemisphere of the brain handles the left half of the body, nonverbal communication, visual-spatial perception, music, art, emotions, recognition, process, pattern, and facial recognition (Ciccarelli & White, p. 78, 2009). The cerebellum is located in the back lower part of the brain. It controls balance, muscle coordination, learned reflexes, and habits (Ciccarelli & White, p. 69, 2009). The Cerebral cortex is the outer covering of the brain. It controls complex thoughts (Ciccarelli & White, p. 68, 2009). There are four lobes to the cerebral cortex. The frontal lobe is located in the front of the brain and controls planning, personality, memory, decision making, and language. The parietal lobes are in the top and back of the brain. The parietal lobes process information from the skin and help to recognize where your body is in relation to things. The occipital lobe is in the rear of the brain and identifies information from the eyes (Ciccarelli & White, p. 73, 2009). In the text, neurologist, Oliver Sachs’ patient that had a tumor in his occipital lobe could see things and describe them, but could not identify them. Sacks once gave him a rose to look at. The man turned it around and around and began to describe it as a â€Å"red inflorescence† of some type with a green tubular projection. Only when he held it under his nose (stimulating the sense of smell) did he recognize it as a rose† (Sachs, 1990 as cited in Ciccarelli & White, p. 73, 2009). The temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex are located behind the temples. They contain the auditory and auditory association areas (Ciccarelli & White, p. 74, 2009). Sensation and Perception Sensation is the activation of receptors in sense organs; i. . eyes, ears, skin, nose, taste buds (K. Hoecker, class lecture, 2010). Perception is the way in which the brain interprets the information and forms it into logical functions (Ciccarelli & White, p. 116, 2009). The process of changing sensation to perception is called transduction (Ciccarelli & White, p. 92, 2009). I found habituation and sensory adaptation to be interesting. Habituation is the ability to tune information out from the ears. You still are hearing the noise, just not paying attention to it (Ciccarelli & White, p. 94, 2009). Sensory adaptation is blocking out the smell, sight, touch or taste after no changing stimuli. Sensory adaptation is different than habituation because the senses themselves become familiar with the stimuli and no longer send signals to the brain instead of the brain not paying attention to the signals (Ciccarelli & White, p. 94, 2009). Psychoactive Drugs Psychoactive drugs produce altered states of consciousness. They alter sensation, perception and memory. There are four types of psychoactive drugs; stimulants, depressants, narcotics, and hallucinogens (Ciccarelli & White, p. 158, 2009). Stimulants the sympathetic and or the central nervous system to increase in their levels of functioning (Ciccarelli & White, p. 158, 2009). Depressants slow the central nervous system down; the most known and used depressant is alcohol. Narcotics are all opium based and suppress the sensation of pain. They bind to endorphins and cause the body to release more (Ciccarelli & White, p. 164, 2009). Hallucinogens cause the brain to change the way it reads information, they can cause the brain to read sights as smells, â€Å"colors have sound, and sounds have smells, and so on (Ciccarelli & White, p. 65, 2009)†. Classical Conditioning The brain is needed in order to learn, act, and live. Classical conditioning is a type of learning that was started by a Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov identified elements that had to be experienced repeatedly and in an order for classical conditioning to happen (Ciccarelli & White, p. 179, 2009). The naturally occurring stimulus is called t he unconditional stimulus. The unlearned response to the unconditioned stimulus is the unconditioned response. A stimulus that has no effect on the unconditioned response is called the neutral stimulus. The neutral stimulus is eventually turned into the conditioned stimulus if it is presented often and on a strict pattern. Once the unconditioned response begins to happen when the conditioned stimulus is presented, it is then the conditioned response (Ciccarelli & White, p. 181, 2009). Extinction is the losing and eventual absence of the conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus if it is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus (Ciccarelli & White, p. 82, 2009), Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of the conditioned response for a short while when the original conditioned response appears (Ciccarelli & White, p. 182, 2009). Higher order conditioning is getting response to other stimuli based on the original conditioned stimuli. In the textbook they theorize about what would happen if after Pavlov succeeded in getting the dogs to salivate at the bell ring, what would happen if he snapped his fingers right before he ran the bell (Ciccarelli & White, p. 183, 2009)? The theory is that after enough times the dogs would salivate at the finger snap. Why is Learning Important? There are five types of learning; classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observation/vicarious learning, latent learning, and insight learning. Besides being able to set up experiments to test the types of learning, why is it important to know about the ways humans and animals learn? It is important to know how you learn best, why people are doing certain things, and what works to teach animals and children how to do things. For instance children learn a lot of their actions through observational learning (Ciccarelli & Whit, p. 209, 2009). Children learned how to act towards a doll based on how others treated the doll, in an experiment (Bandura, et al. , 1961 as cited in Ciccarelli & White, p. 209, 210, 2009). Development â€Å"Human development is the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age, from conception until death (Ciccarelli & White, p. 310, 2009), Personality, cognition, biological development, and social connections are all considered to be part of developing (Ciccarelli & White, p. 317, 2009). There are four argued theories; nature versus nurture, continuity versus stages, stability versus change, individual versus universal (K. Hoecker, class lecture, 2010). Continuity versus stages was the most interesting aspect of development to me. I believe that people change throughout their lives but I don’t necessarily believe that a stage needs to be completed 100% in order to successfully reach maturity. Piaget’s stages of cognitive development include four stages that a person must complete in order to be at their highest potential. From birth until 2 years old a child is considered to be in the sensorimotor stage. In the sensorimotor stage a child uses their senses and motor skills to explore and learn about the world. By the end of the sensorimotor stage the child will understand that when a person or object disappears it still exists (Ciccarelli & White, p. 326, 2009). From ages 2 until 7 a child is said to be in the preoperational stage, in which they can ask questions about their environment and do not have to rely on their senses alone. They are only able to focus on one object at a time and cannot understand that by changing the appearance of something it does not mean that the thing itself has changed (Ciccarelli & White, p. 327, 2009). The third stage of Piagnet’s stages is the concrete operations stage. During the concrete operations stage, age 7 to 12, a child can think logically but is lacking in the ability to understand abstract ideas (Ciccarelli & White, p. 328, 2009). The last of Piagnet’s stages is the formal operations stage. The formal operations stage is generally from the age of 12 onward. During this last stage a person is able to understand abstract thoughts and can have hypothetical thinking (Ciccarelli & White, p. 328, 2009). Personality Personality is how a person acts, think, feels, and presents themselves, it is a constant and originates within the individual (K. Hoecker, class lecture, 2010). There are four goals of personality theorists: figure out the components of identify, find out the structure of personality, and find out how people are motivated and the dynamics of personality, and how personality varies from person to person. Psychodynamic Theory of Personality Sigmund Freud split a person’s personality into three main components, the Id, the ego, and the superego. They are explained as, â€Å"Id: If it feels good, do it (Ciccarelli & White, p. 520, 2009†,†Ego: The executive director (Ciccarelli & White, p. 20, 2009), and the â€Å"Superego: The moral watchdog (Ciccarelli & White, p. 521, 2009). Freud theorized that we develop in stages, which he called psychosexual stages. The first stage is the oral stage, the main focus is oral pleasure and if a person has difficulty in this stage are effected by problems with â€Å"ability to form interpersonal attachments, basic feelings about the world, tendency to use ora l forms of aggression, such as sarcasm, optimism or pessimism, tendency to take charge or be passive (Ciccarelli & White, p. 525, 2009)†. The second stage is the anal stage. The anal stage is focused on bowel and bladder control. The third stage is the phallic stage is focused on the genitals and is when a child identifies themselves physically with the same sex parent (Ciccarelli & White, p. 525, 2009). From age 6 years to puberty is called the latency stage because not much is going on psychosexually. From puberty to death is the genital; stage in which people focus on sexual behavior. I don’t agree with Freud on his theory of personality. To me it seems like he watched people develop and wrote a list based on what he saw in order to explain a difficult adulthood. I know from experience that if you turn potty training into a power struggle it makes for a hellish experience but I don’t think it is going to affect a child later on in their adulthood. Why Is This Important? I knew people learned in different ways but I didn’t know that there are five different learning types and in those types, different styles. I am the mother of a young child and since we covered Chapter 5 (Ciccarelli & White, 2009), I have found myself looking back on the chapter in order to â€Å"trick† my daughter into learning new things. She now makes her bed every day because she modeled my action, and that same behavior worked towards putting dishes in the sink after dinner and picking up messes. I use to ask and then tell her to do something many times and get frustrated that it wasn’t getting done, now that I model the behavior when I know she is watching she is doing everything I had asked of her before without the power struggle. Knowing the different models of psychiatry is important to me and will be used in my life after I get my degree. I am in the behavioral health and human services program and am planning on being a licensed alcohol and drug ounselor soon. I will have to choose what theorist I most agree with and what style to work with when dealing with patients. I know that I will be working with an agency and will have to follow their guidelines but I will still need to understand the theory behind the practice. Global Citizenship Different cultures experience the same thing in different ways. In some cultures someone with schizophrenia may be looked on as having special powers in our culture they are viewed as sick. Cultures also have different psychiatric disorders, based on their own belief systems and structure. In America is not common that a person will fear their genitals are going to shrink or fall off but in China they have a disease name for it, Koro (Ciccarelli % White, p . 559, 2009). People act differently according to where they were raised, what they were taught and what resources available to them. I have an entirely different way of thinking and feeling about some things then even my sisters do, because they were raised with their father in a house while I grew up with my mother in a family shelter for a lot of my childhood. I am able to deal with some things better than them and other times I get panic stricken at things that don’t affect them. Even though we grew up in the same country, the same state, we grew up in different economic levels and with different parents. Being raised in a different location, region, time, economic class, culture in general makes it difficult to relate to other people. If the people have different experience they may not be able to understand where a person’s belief system is based and may not be able to validate that person’s beliefs. As discussed in the textbook people identify themselves. The social identity theory describes how a person develops an identity inside a group. Social categorization is how a person identifies them and where they place themselves into the group; to help determine the role they should play (Ciccarelli & White, p. 495, 2009). Identification is how the person sees themselves in the group, and social comparison is when a person compares themselves to others in order to feel better about their role (Ciccarelli & White, p. 495, 2009).